THE ITALIAN INVASION AND OCCUPATION OF ETHIOPIA (1935-41)

The Italo-Ethiopian conflict  of 1936-41 was  a  war between  Benito  Mussolini's  Italy and Ethiopia ledby Emperor Haile Selassie. The war broke out on October 3, 1935 when Italy attacked Ethiopia. At the time of Italian aggression, Ethiopia and Liberia were'-'the only two states  inAfrica that had survived European imperialism. The invasion of Ethiopia by Italy was an extension of the scramble and epilogue (conclusion) to the partition of Africa.

Ethiopia had defeated  an earlier Italian aggression at Adowa  in 1896 during the reign of Emperor  Menelik II. The Ethiopian effort to hold on to her 2000 years independence was stopped in 1936 when she succumbed (gave in) to Italian defeat and eventual occupation on May 6, 1936.  Italy therefore violated the political virginity  of Ethiopia by controlling the Abyssinian country for a period of five years.

The rise of Fascist Mussolini through the "famous march to Rome of September 27-30, 1922 and later establishing a dictatorial regime in 1923 created a platform for Italian desire to revenge the  Adowa humiliation, and  consequently re-establish a  new Russian Empire  by controlling Ethiopia.

The opportunity came in 1935 and was provoked by the following factors:

Reference questions:

a) Account for the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935

b)"Mussolini was primarily responsible for the 1935-41 Italo-Ethiopian crisis." Discuss

c) How far was the Whiteman's conspiracy responsible for the Italian occupation on Ethiopia between 1935 and 1941?

1.   Mussolini's desire to revive Italian imperialism (colonial domination)

The invasion of Ethiopia was due to Mussolini's desire to restore Italian domination. The emergence  of Benito Mussolini came with his increased ambition of restoring Italian past glory that had been built on the aggressive activities of the defunct (former) Roman Empire. "Mussolini admired and praised the success of the Italian past during the Roman Empire and hence wanted to revive such glories of the Roman Empire." The Italian Dictator therefore wanted to re¬establish a modern Roman Empire by extending Roman influence outside Italy, beginning with Ethiopia. He gave the people of Italy a very ambitious plan which included worshipping the Italian state and acquisition of new territories through a forceful and aggressive foreign policy.

2.   The anti-Italian policy of Haile Selassie

Benito Mussolini attacked the Ethiopian monarchy to revenge against Haile Selassie's anti- Italian policy. Since his rise to power as the Military Governor of Harar Province, Ras Tafari adopted a diplomatic policy which isolated Italy. He completely ignored Italy in Ethiopian foreign relations. Even after signing the 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Friendship, Ras Tafari continued isolating Italy,  which frustrated  Mussolini In 1932,  Emperor  Selassie recruited foreign advisers from other European powers except Italy. He also appointed economic and military experts from Sweden, France, Switzerland, Belgium as well as the USA. Mussolini took it personal hence the 1935 attack on Ethiopia was to enable Italy have influence in Ethiopia.

3.    Italian ambition to revenge against their humiliating defeat at Adowa

The desire by Benito Mussolini to avenge the humiliation suffered by Italy at the Battle of Adowa Adwa) caused  the war against Ethiopia. The Italian Kingdom had wished to capture and add Abyssinia to her African colonial empire which led to the outbreak of the first Italo- Abyssinian war between 1894 and 1896. The Italian force commanded by General Oreste Baratieri was defeated by Ethiopia at the Battle of Adowa on March 1, 1896. The people of Italy had not forgotten such humiliating defeat that did not only leave Abyssinia independent but also kept haunting them for years; Mussolini resurrected the Italian ambition of revenging against Abyssinia with enough confidence that an attack against Ethiopia could arouse the patriotic of Italians towards removing the shameful scar of Adowa.

4.  Need to form the United Italian East African Empire

Mussolini attacked Ethiopia in 1935 with hope of establishing a united Italian East African Empire. During the scramble and partition of Africa, Italy acquired Eritrea and Somaliland, which she wanted to link up by establishing a railway line. Both Italian colonies were near Ethiopia  in the Horn of Africa and were at the same  time  very impoverished  compared to Ethiopia, hence of less importance to Italy. Mussolini wished to improve on Italian position in Africa by conquering Ethiopia and joining it with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Emperor Haile Selassie came to be an obstacle to Mussolini's dream empire as he opposed the railway line passing through Ethiopia. Mussolini therefore found it necessary to annex Ethiopia, add her to Eritrea and Somaliland, so as to effectively establish the United Italian East African Empire.

5.  Mussolini's determination to disgrace Ethiopia and end her pride

The pride of the Ethiopian state of 2000 years of self-rule prompted Italy to attack Ethiopia. By the 20th  Century, most  of African continent had been shared  and controlled by European powers.-The two independent exceptions the survived colonialism were the young Republic of Liberia on the West African Atlantic  Coast,  created  and supervised  by the US-government since 1822, and the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) Empire in the Horn of Africa, whose sovereignty was confirmed after her defeat of Italy in the 1896 Adowa Battle. Since the rule of Emperor Menelik  II,  the  Ethiopian Empire  was  proudly isolating Italy in  its  relations  with  Europe especially on matters  of diplomacy and  military  alliances. Mussolini's desire to end the arrogance of the Ethiopian government and disgrace the independent Ethiopian Empire made the Italo-Ethiopian war inevitable.

6.  The rise of fascist Mussolini and his desire to spread fascism

The emergence of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and his fascist ideology led to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. Benito Mussolini developed the political ideology of fascism as means to help restore the social, economic, and cultural life of his country. He formed the National Fascist Party (PNF) with an aim of promoting military dictatorship, and this shaped his rigid military character. His coming to power led to the acceleration of fascism that promoted the ideology of survival of the fittest and the domination of weaker nations by powerful ones. The desire to spread fascism beyond Italian boundaries made Mussolini to look at Ethiopia as a possible venue.

7.  Mussolini's ambition to have full control over port Massawa and Assab

The need to have full control over Massawa and Assab caused the Italian attack on Ethiopia. Port Massawa was under joint control of the British and Italians, who most of the times failed to agree on patent issues regarding trade on the port. The port combined trade activities among the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe.  It exported agricultural products, especially nuts, coffee and hides. The British accessed Port Massawa  and Assab from Sudan and through Ethiopia.  Mussolini's  invasion of Ethiopia  was  therefore  to  claim full  control  of Ethiopia, deny the British access  to ports thereby eliminating their interests in these ports.

8.  The role of the 1934 Walwal incident

The immediate cause of the Second ItakrAbyssinian war was the 1934 Walwal incident. This incident resulted from the ongoing conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Ethiopia. In 1930, Italy created  a military fort of Italian and Somali officers at the Walwal (Welwel) oasis in the Ethiopian territory of Ogaden bordering Italian territory of Somaliland. Fighting occurred at Walwal in December involving Somali officers in the Italian forces and Ethiopian army of about 6000 men. Two Italian fighter planes bombed and destroyed the Ethiopian camp leading to the final conquest of Walwal. Mussolini used the incident to make unrealistic demands to Selassie which included a written apology, an indemnity (compensation) of about 20000 US dollars and a delegation of Ethiopian officials to salute the Italian flag at Walwal. Haile Selassie rejected the demands of Mussolini, who hence, used it as an excuse to attack Ethiopia the following year,

9. Need to civilize Ethiopia

Italy claimed she attacked Ethiopia due to a civilisation mission. Mussolini claimed that the invasion of Ethiopia was not an aggression but rather it was aimed at promoting European civilization in a primitive and barbaric Ethiopian state. He went ahead to attack the League of Nations for asserting that he had a greedy heart which made him to invade Ethiopia a member of international Peace Keeping body. Mussolini questioned how the League tribunal could condemn him for civilising Ethiopia a backward and uncultured nation that deserved to be civilized.

10. The unfairness of the Versailles Peace Settlement

The outcomes  of the 1919 Versailles peace settlement influenced Italy to attack Ethiopia in

1935. The settlement was made at a conference convened by the victor powers of World War I led by Britain and France. The Versailles settlement was aimed at finding means of punishing Germany and her allies and to reward the allies of victor powers. German was hence made to lose her colonial possessions including the African territory of South West Africa (Namibia), Rwanda – Urundi. Togoland, Cameroon and Tanganyika. These were shared among the Victor alies. Italy's hope of getting more territories under her control met a dead end as she came out of the conference  empty handed. This later compelled Mussolini to attack  Ethiopia as  a means of compensating for the loss at Versailles.

11. Mussolini's ambition to demonstrate Italian military strength

Thedesire by Italy to exhibit her military strength made 1935 Itako Ethiopian war inevitable. Italy was regarded a military power since her wars of unification but the shameful defeat at the hands of Ethiopia during the Battle of Adowa in 1896 and the poor performance of the Italian army during World War I greatly affected her military prestige. Italy hence wanted her military -strength to be felt once again. The chance came with the rise of Mussolini to power. "Mussolini  lid the determination  to raise  the military prestige  of Italy  in the eyes of other powers and that possible  only  if he was able  to show that his  army was not only strong enough to protect 'Italian boundaries but also to conquer other territories." He embarked on modifying the military sector by manufacturing sophisticated arms and ammunitions as well as training the Italian troops in modern warfare and military tactics. Hence Mussolini invaded Ethiopia in order to remonstrate Italian military might to the whole world.

12. Mossolinis allegation of Ethiopian Planning to attack Eritrea and Somaliland

The alleged intention of Ethiopia to expel Italy from her colonies of Eritrea and Somali- land Influenced Italy to invade Ethiopia. Soon after his coronation as the emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selasse embarked on modernising the Ethiopian forces as  fast as  the Empire's resources could allow. Mussolini suspected  the re-organisation of the Ethiopian army as a plan by Selassie to attack the Italian colonies in the Horn of Africa. The Italian spokesperson  had to comment  that Ethiopia  was arming  her troops in an updated  European manner. This  fear made the Italians to appeal to the Italian government and Mussolini responded by attacking Ethiopia.

13. Impact of economic crisis in  Italy

Europe after World War I influenced Mussolini to attack Ethiopia. The after reflects of World War I  were a multiple of economic problems in Europe  between 1929 and 1932, and this situation came to be known as the economic crisis. This economic situation severely affected every state  in Europe but the condition of Italy was the unhappy. The war if: a high cost of living in Italy with a budget deficit of over 12,000 million Lire ($228000 million) which made it impossible for the government to ensure proper economic planning. The Italian currency (Lire) was depreciated, unemployment had greatly increased due to collapse of industries, and many Italians were retrenched from their jobs while wages of those who employed were cut down. Italy had an adverse balance of trade as her import volumes compared to the exports. Such poor economic atmosphere made Mussolini to look at thevirgin resources of Ethiopia as the only hope that would stabilise Italy's collapsing economy hencethe Italian invasion of Ethiopia.

14. The unfair Italian share at Berlin

The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 had an effect on the outbreak of Italy Ethiopian conflict. The Conference was convened in Germany, organised by Bismarck the German Chancellor. At Berlin, Africa was partitioned like a piece of cake among the European colonial powers. Italy paid the price of entering the colonial race much later than other powers by acquiring the semi

-arid territories of Libya, Eritrea and Somaliland. Her joining the colonial business late was due to lack of military and industrial resources like other powers. The Italian dissatisfaction at Berlin influenced her attempt to conquer Abyssinia which failed by 1896. With such unfair share at Berlin, Italy kept alive her dream of controlling Ethiopia, and the opportunity came in

1934-35 during the time of Dictator Mussol

15. The weakness of the League of Nations

The weakness of the League of Nations contributed to the outbreak of the Italo-Ethiopian was of 1935. The League was formed on 1920 as an international peace keeping body. The major aim was to discourage further aggressions of one state over the other. In the charter of the League, it was stated that no country was to attack another member without a strong reason and if so, the issue would be amicably settled. The League however provided for free entry and exit  hence giving Italy  an opportunity  to withdraw  from the league.  By the time  of Italian aggression on Ethiopia, Italy was no longer a member of the League.

16. Japanese occupation of Manchuria

Influence of Japanese invasion of the Chinese industrial province of Manchuria made Italy to attack  Ethiopia in  1935. In September  1931, the Japanese Kwantung army invaded and occupied Manchuria, whose large agricultural sector turned her into the food basket of the Far East. Japan was heavily affected by the economic crisis hence looked at Manchuria as  a territory to resettle part of her unemployed populace and invest her capital, a source of raw materials for her industries, a new market to expand her foreign trade and a source of wealth due to its timber resources and minerals. The major Powers of the League showed a negative reaction when China called for support and instead agreed that Manchuria was of military and strategic importance to Japan that also had a responsibility to protect the lives and property of Japanese in the province. Mussolini found a great excuse to invade Ethiopia well knowing that the principle of collective security was never upheld by the league.

17. Impact of the 1934 Stresa Front (Anglo-French conspiracy)

The Stresa  Front and  the  Italo-Anglo -  French alliance gave Mussolini morale to  invade Ethiopia. The Stresa Front was an agreement made during a tripartite conference in a small Italian town of Stresa. It was signed on April 14, 1934 between French Prime Minister Pierre Laval, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, and Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. The three states represented at Stresa, France, Britain and Italy signed the treaty as an alliance again?! German rearmament plan, which threatened peace and security in Europe. Mussolini discussed with  British delegates  his  plans  of making Italy 'great,  respected  and  feared' through the Invasion and conquest of Abyssinia and ultimately create an all-powerful Italian Empire in East Africa. Benito Mussolini believed that the signing of the "Stresa Front" would mean Britain and France would not interfere in the Italo-Ethiopian crisis. This encouraged him to organise a military invasion on Ethiopia in 1935.

18. The weakness of Ethiopian army

The refusal to sell military hardware to Ethiopia convinced Italy to attack her in 1935. Britain and France refused to sell weapons to Ethiopia at a time when Italy was deploying troops along the Ethiopian border with Somali-land. Even though Selassie had embarked on modernising the Ethiopian army, Ethiopia could not build a formidable force without acquiring modern weapons

The arms embargo (restriction on the sale of ammunitions) to Italy and Ethiopia favoured the former (Italy) who manufactured her own arms and ammunitions. This biased dishonesty of the European powers gave courage to Italy to attack Ethiopia, as she was aware of Ethiopian military weakness.

1.   Need for territories to resettle Italian desperate population

The desire by Italy to acquire new territories for her surplus population led to the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Italy was in need of colonies to resettle hundreds of thousands of her people who were lacking work in their fatherland, Mussolini was concerned that Italians were no longer able to migrate abroad on account of the limitations imposed on immigration by other European   countries. He claimed that  Italians  were hungry for land because  they were abundant, productive and creative. The Ethiopian highlands had good and favourable climatic conditions with fertile arable soils conducive for Italian settlement and agriculture. Such influenced Italy to invade in order to realise economic activities and empower the Italian economy.

2.  Desire to exploit Ethiopia

The conquest of Abyssinia would put the country's economic resources  into Italian hands. Mussolini was  eager  to take up control of the all mineral resources  in the mountainous country of Abyssina.  The Italian desire for raw materials for her industries and market for her finished good also made it necessary for the invasion and occupation of Ethiopia. The high Ethiopian plateau was conducive for coffee, tea, nuts and tobacco growing. Ethiopia was also famous for exporting animal hides due to a larger percentage of her population engaging in pastoralism. Mussolini confirmed Italian desire to exploit Ethiopia by claiming that Eritrea and Somaliland lacked the  economic  potential  that  other  European  powers  enjoyed in  their colonies.

3.   Support from German's Hitler

German support to Mussolini in his conquest of Abyssinia made the war between Italy and Ethiopian inevitable. In 1934, Mussolini and the great powers of France and Britain opposed Hitler’s ambitious desire to violate the Versailles settlement and annex Austria to Germany. Austrians were also Germans but at Versailles, the victor powers of World War I decided to leave Austria independent because  the  statesmen  did not  want  to  create  a  strong  and powerful Germany, which would be a source of danger to peace  and security in Europe. Mussolini was drawn to Hitler during the Italo - Ethiopian conflict, which convinced him that Germany was a better friend than France and Britain. Whereas the big powers of the world opposed Mussolini for planning an attack on Ethiopia and imposed economic sanctions on Italy, Hitler stood with Mussolini and supported him to occupy Ethiopia.

4.   Impact of the Hoare-Laval Pact

The Hoare-Laval Pact was a secret proposal made to Benito Mussolini in December 1935 by British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and French Prime Minister Pierre Laval to end the Second Italo - Abyssinian War. Hoare and Laval offered to partition Abyssinia to enable the Italian dictator achieve his goal of turning Abyssinia into an Italian colony. This support to Mussolini was aimed at preventing him from allying with Hitler. By this pact, Italy would gain the best parts of the provinces of Ogaden and Tigray, with economic influence all over the southern region of Abyssinia. Emperor Selassie was to retain control over only the parts of thenorth. Mussolini  had agreed to the pact because  he wanted to end the Abyssinian  war which had continued due to determined nationalistic resistance of the Ethiopians. Even though the Hoare Laval Plan was not successful, it assured Mussolini of Anglo-French backing, which encouraged him to have full control of Ethiopia (Abyssinia).

Please note:

The Hoare-Laval Pact only confirmed Italian occupation of Ethiopia, but not the outbreak of the war. It was signed in December 1935J two months after the war had broken out.