AFRICAN NATIONALISM

On the other hand, African nationalism is the political awareness of all people of Africa regardless of their origin, colour, race, and religion," that they belong to the African continent and that they desire to protect and defend their continent from humiliation, oppression, exploitation, discrimination (racial segregation) slavery, and colonialism against all odds.

It means that Africans desire to be treated better by the international community with the highest degree of equality like the other peoples from the rest of the World.

LEVELS OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM

a. Ethno-consciousness (intra-state or sub nationalism)

This is an African belonging defined by the inter connection of people of similar ethnic or tribal origin. This form of African nationalism is commonly expressed through tribalism, nepotism and sectarianism often causing civil wars and secessionist or separatist movements. Ethno- consciousness was experienced in Rwanda in 1959 and 1990-94, in Nigeria during the Biafra war of 1967-70 and in Congo during the Katanga crisis of 1961-64.

b. Racial consciousness (racism)

It is defined by segregation (discrimination) based on colour differences. This was witnessed in South Africa during Apartheid (Afrikaner nationalism) where the minority whites oppressed the black majority. Racial nationalism was also experienced in Zimbabwe where the white settlers discriminated the black majority especially during Ian Smith's regime and in the Sudan where Arabs of the north dominated blacks of the south.

c. Super nationalism (Trans ethnic nationalism)

This is nationalism at country or national level. It is a feeling of togetherness or belonging to a nation regardless of differences in ethnic origins, colour, background or religion. It is a force that brought together Africans of given nations to struggle for their independence.

d. Supra nationalism (Pan Africanism)

Pan Africanism is the spiritual unity or solidarity of Africans living with in Africa and the Diaspora; their love for the African continent and the pride in belonging to or originating from the African continent regardless of national boundaries.

This form of nationalism is either:

i. Trans-Saharan nationalism where the Arab North Africa work together and confirm with

Black Africa (sub Saharan Africa) or

ii.   Trans-Atlantic nationalism where Africans on the continent are fully in touch with African descendants outside Africa i.e. in America, Caribbean and West indies.

DEFINITION AND UNDERSTANDING OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM:

African Nationalism can be defined as the desire of Africans to end all major forms of foreign control and influence in order to have control of their political, social and economic affairs.

The introduction of foreign systems  of government and the loss of independence to foreigners caused feelings of resistance among rulers and peoples of Africa. Therefore foreign control caused feelings of nationalism among Africans and their desire for decolonization.

Decolonization is therefore the process of granting Africans self-rule and independence, and their freedom from foreign (European) rule. Decolonization was hence motivated by the nationalist spirit of Africans.

Different African leaders and history scholars have defined African Nationalism differently: Nkrumah looks at African nationalism as African efforts towards independence, mobilization

of African people towards development of their nation and opposition to foreign influence.

Julius Nyerere explains that African nationalism should be geared towards independence and motivation to Africans to reject foreign interference; and ensure their destiny.

According to Nelson Mandela, African nationalism aims at freeing of Africans from foreign domination and leadership, the creation of a united nation out of many tribes, and the creation of conditions, which can enable Africans to make their own contributions to human progress and happiness.

Professor Ali Mazrui describes African Nationalism as the African desire for nationhood and the emergency of new states in Africa towards political and economic emancipation. He emphasizes the elimination of colonialism and the birth of consciousness and pride of being African; belonging to the African continent and liberation against foreign domination.

Professor Semakula Kiwanuka defines African Nationalism as a total rejection of all forms of colonialism and manifestations (characteristics) in political, social, and economic spheres so as to achieve complete independence.

According to Muhamood Mamdani, African nationalism is the African struggle for independence and eliminates foreign influence from socio-economic affairs of Africa.

African nationalism has taken the trend or force of trying to create unity and patriotic feelings among people of Africa regardless of color, religion, culture, tribe and fighting against imperialism in all its forms and malpractices.

The concept of African Nationalism can also be explained as desire for African independence and freedom from either foreign or internal oppression," the awareness of African people that they belong to a nation with political, social, and economic identities and interests of their own.

It emphasizes the consciousness or awareness of belonging to Africa and African nation, shown by the desire to develop that nation socially, politically and economically without foreign influence.

It is a political way of the African- people in opposition to foreign domination and favour African rule. It is an expression of hostility to foreign rule in all its manifestation political, social and economic.

In conclusion therefore, African Nationalism is an expression of hostility to foreign rule and domination in all its forms; a desire to create unity and solidarity and forge development of African people.

FACTORS  RESPONSIBLE  FOR  THE  GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT  OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM

Reference questions

a) Examine the factors that led to the growth of modern African nationalism

b) Explain the factors that influenced the struggle for independence in Africa

c) Account for the growth of African nationalism

d) What were the factors responsible for the growth of modern nationalism in Africa?

Before 1960, much of Africa was still under European colonial control. However, by 1970 most of Africa was independent of European colonialism. Therefore, the events that influenced Africans to demand  for self-rule and complete eradication of European influence can be analysed as follows'

1. European oppressive colonial policies in Africa

The existence of European colonialism aroused African grievance against colonialism. These colonial policies included racial discrimination, poor taxation system like the unpopular hut tax charged on males of 12 years and above, poor labour system  (forced or contract labour), grabbing of African land and forcing them into reserves and arbitrary arrest (without trial) of African  nationalists. The colonial policies  humiliated,  oppressed  and  exploited Africans. African elites (nationalists) who either condemned or rose up against colonial governments like Kwame Nkrumah of the Gold Coast, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Nelson Mandela of South Africa got arrested.' some  like Amilcan  Cabral of Portuguese  Guinea and Edwardo Mondlane of Mozambique were murdered while King Edward Mutesa (Buganda) and Sultan Muhammad of Morocco were forced into exile. Thus, the colonial oppressive policies which were aimed at consolidating European dominations provoked African patriots to struggle for independence.

2. Missionary activities in Africa

The activities of Christian missionaries influenced African struggles for independence. Some European missionaries showed humane concern to the cause of Africans to be free from colonial exploitation. They preached the gospel of equality of races before God and love for others, and condemned the mistreatment of African subjects by European colonialists. This missionary impact was felt in South Africa and Central Africa. In Nyasaland (Malawi today), the Scottish missionaries supported the African cause for liberty and political rights as well as emphasizing independence through the slogan of "Africa for Africans'' In some states  like Kenya however,  the missionaries  never lived what they preached. They were discriminative and actively took part in  mistreating Kenyans. Nevertheless, positively or negatively, the missionary activities were instrumental in the rise of African nationalism.

3. The rise of African independent churches

The emergence of African independent church movement was a step towards anticolonial struggles in Africa.  By the  late nineteenth Century, African  clergymen had failed in  their demands to be included in church governance that was dominated by the white priests and missionaries. African  converts (priests) established their own churches  based  on African principles. The independent church movement was active in Nigeria, Nyasaland and Kenya. The leaders of these churches like John Chilembwe of Nyasaland and Isaiah of South Africa preached  against  oppression  of Africans  and  demanded  for African  rights.  The African churches  exhibited  the  fact  that  Africans  could  run  their  own affairs.  The success  of independent Churches influenced African demand for political independence.

4. The existence of independent African states, Liberia and Ethiopia

The presence of independent African states  motivated Africans under colonialism to demand for independence. By early 19th Century, almost the  entire African  continent was  under European colonial domination apart from Liberia and Ethiopia. Liberia was protected by USA while Ethiopia had a strong African leader Menelik  II who had defeated Italy in 1896. These two states  enjoyed independence with related benefits such as  self-rule, exemption from colonial oppression and an independent economy.  The independence benefits enjoyed by Ethiopia and Liberia motivated other Africans to rise up against European colonism.

5. Lessons from Japanese success since 1880

Japan by 1860 had started progressing in socio-economic development based on Japanese native cultures. The Asian country was the first major non-western power to experience rapid development without foreign influence. This Japanese economic success supported by her military advancement rang a bell to Africans that development is possible in the absence of western influence. Africans therefore, rose up against colonialists demanding for an end to colonial exploitation

6. Influence of blacks in the Diaspora and the Pan African Movement-PAM (since 1900)

The influence of African descendants  in the Diaspora contributed to the decolonisation of Africa. The African descendants  like W.E.B Du Bois,  Marcus Garvey and Sylvester Williams established the Pan African Movement aimed at liberating all blacks all over the world from white domination and oppression. They were aggrieved by the increased European colonial domination of their motherland Africa. Through the PAM, they emphasised a slogan of "Africa for Africans", extended financial and moral assistance to African freedom fighters and advised Africans to apply military means in order to achieve independence.

7. Impact of World War I (1914-18)

The outbreak and eventual end of World War I had a hand in the growth of African nationalism. The events that followed World War I provoked nationalistic feelings in Africa. Following theend  of the  war, Germany lost her colonial possessions in  Africa, which raised hope  of independence among these territories. In 1918, Lloyd George the Premier of Britain stated that the  idea of self-governance was  relevant to only  former German colonies and  occupied territories in Europe. This denied the former German African colonies the opportunity to be free from foreign domination. It also partly led to the 1919 Pan African Congress in Paris all of which influenced African to demand for Freedom.

8. The Russian revolution (1917)

The influence of the Russian revolution of 1917 led to the growth of African nationalism. The Bolsheviks led by Lenin defeated the Mensheviks of Alexander Kerensky and established communism in Russia. Lenin's communist ideology was greatly opposed to capitalism which had influenced the introduction of colonialism in Africa. Communist Russia became an ally of Africans against foreign domination. Communism spread the gospel of equality of all nations and encouraged revolutionary armed struggles which liberation movements like FLN, MPLA and SWAPO adopted against European colonialism.

9. The Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)

The Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 is  yet another major event that raised the spirit  of

African cohesion against white aggression. Mussolini attacked Ethiopia partly to revenge the

1896 Adowa humiliation in order to extend Italian imperialism. The invasion of Ethiopia was the last major action of European colonialism in Africa which violated the 2000 years of Ethiopian independence. The crisis deepened a sense of nationalistic belonging and created political awareness  among Africans. The Italian act violated Ethiopia's sovereignty which for so long had been a symbol of African sovereignty. Therefore, the Italo-Ethiopian crisis raised the issue of the right to self-determination elsewhere in Africa.

10. Impact of World War II (1939-45)

The  outbreak  and  aftermath  of  the  Second  World  War  was  a  turning  point  in  the decolonisation of Africa. The war was between the Allied powers of Britain, France, Poland and later USA and USSR; and the Axis powers comprising mainly Germany, Austria, Japan and Italy. Africans were recruited by their colonial masters  to go and participate in the war as soldiers, porters and cooks. These Africans acquired military skills which were instrumental for the struggle for independence. The ex-service men included Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria, General China (Waruhiu Itote) among others. The war made colonial masters to give Africans high sounding but empty promises. This influenced Africans to turn against colonialists.

11. Impact of the Atlantic Charter (1941)

Another event that raised nationalistic feelings among Africans was the Atlantic Charted the charter was signed in August 1941 during the course of World War II between the Allied camp led by Winston Churchill, Prime minister of United Kingdom and Franklin Roosevelt President of USA with Joseph Stalin leader of Russia as the observer. Article III of the charter stipulated that  the  dominated people and all  states  under occupation had a right to choose  for a government of their own. Britain and USA agreed that time had come to liberate those under foreign domination from the bondage of oppression. The charter therefore, influenced the African desire for independence.

12. Ethiopian success over Italy (1941)

The military victory of Ethiopians over the Italians in 1941 became a lesson to the rest of African states  under white domination. The Ethiopian resistance to Italian land grabbing, forced labour arbitrary arrests and poor taxation inspired the activities of Africans elsewhere against white settlers. The leadership of the Black Lions movement employed guerrilla and terrorist methods against the Italians, which included violent attacks  on Italian settlers and their property, investments and installations. These methods were adopted in Kenya, Angola, Algeria and British Central Africa where white property and investments became increasingly the targets of African patriots in the struggle for self-rule. The success of Ethiopians in 1941 hence, became a motivational factor in the struggle against European domination.

13. The contribution of the Brazzaville conference (1944)

The Brazzaville meeting of 1944 influenced the struggle for independence especially in French West Africa. Threatened by the rising anti-colonial sentiments in Africa, Charles de Gaulle the French leader convened a meeting of all French colonial representatives in Africa. The meeting was aimed at diverting the attention of the African colonial subjects from the idea of self-rule, and  rewarding them  for their support  to France against Germany occupation during the Second  World  War. The conference  led to  political concessions  which  created  political awareness  among the Africans.  Africans  attained  administrative  posts,  native  assemblies were introduced; de Gaulle increased African representation in the French parliament and allowed Africans to form political groupings. The outcomes of the Brazzaville conference influenced Africans to demand for their independence.

14. The rise to power of the Labour party in Britain (1945)

The coming to power of the Labour party in Britain in 1945 influenced independence agitations in British Africa. Shortly after World War II elections were held in Britain with the Labour Party of Clement Atlee defeating the Conservative Party of Winston Churchill. The Labour government under Clement was liberal; initiated political reforms in British African colonies which included new constitutions i.e. the Burns constitution in  The Gold  Coast  and  the Richards constitution in Nigeria 'both in 1946); and increased African representation in the LEGCO. These political developments increased African morale for independence.

15. Formation and role of United Nations Organization-UNO (1945)

The emergence of UNO as the new international custodian of world peace worked in favour of African  nationalism. The UNO  replaced the  useless  League  of Nations  which  had  been dominated by France and Britain, two of European powers with majority colonies in Africa. Aware of the dangers of imperialism, the UN created a Decolonization Committee to oversee the transition from colonialism to independence. The body also established a Trusteeship Council to take care of former mandated territories of the League and prepare these former German and Italian colonies for independence. The UN declared the years between 1950 and

1960 as a decade  of decolonisation. The intervention of the United Nations Organisation hurried the independence in Tunisia, Ghana, Libya and Morocco.

16. Impact of the Manchester Conference (1945)

The fifth Pan African Conference held in Manchester England was another event that led to the consolidation of African desire for self-rule. Organised by African descendants  like W.E.B. Du Bois and George Padmore, the conference was attended by Africans like Nkrumah of the Gold –Coast as one of the secretaries, Kenyatta of Kenya as assistant secretary and Nnamdi Azikiwe of Nigeria. The conference recommended the formation of African political parties, mass- involvement in the struggle for independence; and the use of military means if non- violence was ineffective. The conference influenced the return of Africans from abroad to lead independence agitations in their respective states.  Kenyatta returned to Kenya in 1946 while Nkrumah went back to the Gold Coast in 1947.

17. The emergence of new super powers (1945) or cold war politics (1946)

The rise of USA and the Soviet Union (USSR) as to the rank of superpowers after World War II facilitated the decolonisation of Africa. The new superpowers replaced France, Britain and Germany at the top of world affairs. USA and the Soviet Union expressed  an anti-colonial attitude through disliking direct imperialism. They condemned the continued domination and exploitation of Africa by Europeans. The USA and the USSR allied with Africans by giving them financial, military and moral support, and education scholarships to aid their liberation struggles.  The African beneficiaries  included  Morocco,  Mozambique  and South Africa. The emergence of the Soviet Union as a world power led to the spread of socialist and communist ideas which encouraged  the colonised people to use militarism as  a strategy of attaining sovereign equality.

18. Urbanisation in Africa since 1946

The development of towns and the increased settlement of Africans in urban centres was a step  towards  the  growth of African  nationalism.  These  urban  centres  included  Nairobi, Kampala. Accra, Lagos and Pretoria. Many Africans flocked to towns in search for greener pastures but were disappointed with the expensive cost of living, lack of employment as well as discrimination by the whites and colonial agents. All these conditions frustrated the idle Africans who were easily mobilised into trade unions and political parties to oppose colonialism.

19. The independence of India and Pakistan (1947)

The attainment of independence by India and Pakistan in 1947 affected the African struggle for self-rule. The British granted independence to the single Indian empire through the Indian Congress  Party (INC) led by Jawaharlal Nehru. The Indians effectively used  non-violence (Gandhiism) pioneered by Mahatma Gandhi, which included demonstrations, defiance campaigns, strikes and boycotts.' and sabotaging traffic flow. Africans borrowed and effected the same methods against European colonialists. Independent India extended moral, financial and military support to African states  like Kenya; and increased on the members of the UN General Assembly who voted in favour of total decolonisation of the world.

20. Victory of the Nationalist Party and the enactment of Apartheid in South Africa (1948)

The rise of Afrikaner nationalism and the formalisation of Apartheid in South Africa in 1948 induced Africans against white domination. The Nationalist Party of Dr. Malan defeated the Unionist Party of Smuts which had shown interest in liberating Africans. Dr. Malan went ahead and  legalised  Apartheid  as  a  political  administrative  system  in  South Africa.  Apartheid stressed  the superiority of the white (Afrikaner) race over non-whites. This racial system subjected Africans  to  untold suffering,  deprived them  of political participation and  land ownership. Such atrocities were detested  by Africans on the continent who rose up against minority dominance.

21. The Contribution of western education and African elites

The role of western education led to the development of African nationalism. This formal education introduced by the Europeans produced African educated masses (elite class) that included Kwame Nkrumah of the Gold Coast, Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika, Nelson Mandela of South Africa, etcetera. The elites were politically aware of the colonial oppressive rule and the need for the respect of the rights of man. They desired for change and therefore pressured colonial governments in to grant political concessions (reforms). They sensitised masses through press (newspapers) and used political parties as a mobilisation tool against foreign domination.' all of which influenced the growth of African patriotism.

22. The Formation and the role of political parties

The formation of political parties in Africa increased the African demand for independence. These parties included the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) in South Africa, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) and the Convention People's Party (CPP) of the Gold Coast (Ghana), the Kenya African National Union (KANU) in Kenya, the Democratic  Party (DP) and the Uganda  People's  Congress (UPC) in Uganda.  These parties were used as a platform to condemn colonialism, and mobilise African masses to demand for independence. Some parties like the PAIGC of Guinea Bissau and the MPLA of Angola used military means to struggle for independence.

23. Influence of press and mass media

Through press  and mass  media, Africans increasingly demanded for independence. African freedom fighters established nationalistic newspapers  like the Accra Evening News in the Gold Coast, Sekanolya in Uganda, Sauti ya Mwafrika in Kenya and Malawi News in Nyasaland.' and radio broadcasting through Radio Cairo, Radio Accra and the Algerian Free Voice. Through mass  media, Africans spread anti-colonial propaganda by criticizing colonial atrocities like arbitrary detention of freedom fighters and use of violence against African demonstrators. Mass media became an, instrument of sensitising and mobilising masses to join the struggle for independence.

24. Impact of MDD and African Artistes

The role of the music and artistes led to the growth of African nationalism. Music has been a component of African life and culture, through which educative and important information is deliberated  and transmitted.  African musicians  and artistes  composed  motivational  songs and plays which exposed the evils of the colonial masters in Africa and encouraged the black world to unite towards demanding for independence. Music also became an effective tool of mobilising for political rallies and debates  against colonialism. In South Africa, Lucky Dube composed a number of anti-Apartheid songs like "Different colours one people", "Prisoner" and "Slave" among others which encouraged the blacks to fight against the Apartheid regime in South Africa up to 1994 when it collapsed. Pan African Musicians like Bob Marley encouraged African love and unity against white domination through their Music Marley's songs like "Africa Unite," "Zimbabwe" and "One Love" motivated African efforts towards unity and freedom.

25. The Chinese Communist revolution (1949)

The success of the Communist Party in China in 1949 led by Mao Zedong (Tse Tang) against the  Kuomintang supported  by the  British led to the  growth of African  nationalism. Like communist Russia, Communist China after the revolution embarked on de-campaigning colonialism through the UN general assembly.' and went ahead to extent assistance to African movements demanding for independence like FLN of Algeria, ZANU of Southern Rhodesia and FRELIMO  of Mozambique. China also engaged in supporting development programmes  of newly independent African states  as well as states  undertaking processes  of nation building, such as Tanzania, Ghana and Mozambique. The attitude of Communist China towards Africa influenced African nationalistic feeling.

26. The rise of Indonesian nationalism (1950 and 1951)

The nationalistic activities of Indonesians against the Dutch imperialists had an impact on colonial Africa. The Dutch had subjected the Indo-Chinese to oppressive rule and treated Indonesia as an oversea territory. The Indonesians were economically marginalised, exploited and racially discriminated. These  injustices forced the educated  Indonesians to drop the peaceful means and resorted to militarism, which led to their independence by 1951. Apart from morale boosting African resistance to colonial rule, Indonesia joined the UN general assembly to condemn imperialism. Africans became aware that independence could not be possible on a silver plate but through positive action against colonialism.

27. The Egyptian revolution (1952)

The Egyptian revolution of 1952 and the eventual success of the free army officers led by Abdel Nasser made the decolonisation of Africa inevitable. Nasser successfully staged a coup that led to the downfall of a pro-western king, Farouk. As soon as Nasser came to power, he immediately extended financial, moral and military assistance to Africans struggling for their independence. These included Algeria and Kenya. He declared radio Cairo as the free voice of Africa, through which anti-colonial propaganda was spread.

28. Effects of the Mau-Mau uprising in Kenya (1952-55)

The Mau-Mau uprising in Kenya increased the desire for independence especially among the

British colonies. The revolt created awareness  to the British colonial masters  that Africans were determined to get rid of colonialism at all cost.  The British began granting political concessions to their colonies; these included increased African representation in the Legco, African participation in administration, as well as constitutional reforms. These political developments influenced Africans to demand for political freedoms  hence influencing the growth  for  African  nationalism.  The  Mau-Mau  uprising  also  hastened  independence attainment in Ghana, Tanganyika and Uganda.

29. Victory of Vietnamese nationalism over the French (1954)

The Vietnamese war of independence had an impact on the growth of African nationalism. Between 1946 and 1954, the Vietnamese were involved in a full scale war against the French colonial regime that had been weakened by World War II. The Vietnamese used the barrel of the gun against the French with determination to end foreign rule. The Vietnamese who were regarded as weak humiliated the French at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in the presence  of African soldiers like Ben Bella, who were part of the French forces. The defeat of the French in the Vietnamese jungles inspired Ben Bella to lead an armed struggle against the French in the Algerian desert.

30. The Algerian war of independence (1954-62)

The Algerian liberation war motivated the decolonisation of Africa especially among French colonies. As the first war of independence against the French in Africa,' the war threatened French colonial administration on the continent. Led by the FLN under Ben Bella, the war influenced the  French to initiate political developments in  their colonies. These  included increased African representation in the Paris assembly and the immediate independence of Tunisia in 1956; and Morocco and Guinea in 1958. The Algerian war influenced other Africans in countries like Mozambique and Southern Rhodesia to use military means in their struggle for independence.

31. The Bandung conference (1955) and the Non-aligned movement (1961)

The Bandung conference and the adoption of the non-aligned policy accelerated the growth of African nationalism. This conference brought together low developed countries of Africa, Asia, West Indies and the Caribbean, The delegates in Bandung agreed to have a formal cooperation through the Non-aligned movement, which was formalised in Belgrade in 1961t  All members of the  Non-aligned movement condemned  colonialism and  cold war rivalry  of the  super powers," pledged to work together against foreign influence; with the non-African members promised their African  counterparts  financial and military assistance in their struggle for independence.

32. The contribution of the independence of Ghana (1957)

The attainment  of  independence  by Ghana in  1957  was  a  landmark  in  the  growth of nationalism  in  Africa.  Ghana  was  the  first  country south  of  the  Sahara  to  achieve independence- on receiving the instruments of independence, Nkrumah declared, "the independence of Ghana was meaningless if the other parts of Africa were still under foreign domination."  Nkrumah's statement  motivated  Africans  on  the  continent  to  demand  for independence. Independent Ghana organised the first Pan African conference in Africa i.e. the

1958 'All African  People's Conference' and also extended assistance to countries struggling for independence like Algeria.

33. Influence of Guinean independence (1958)

The independence  of Guinea  Conakry in  1958  made  the  growth of African  nationalism inevitable. Through the 1958 de Gaulle referendum, Sekou Toure Ahmed led French Guinea to independence. Guinea hence became the first French West African colony to achieve self-rule. Immediately after granting independence to Guinea, the French prepared the rest of their colonies  for political  freedom.  In  Ivory  Coast  and  Senegal,  the  French allowed majority Africans in administration and in the native assembly. The independence of Guinea Conakry hence increased the chances for independence among other French colonies.

34. The role of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1959

The contribution of the Commonwealth of Nations cannot be underestimated in influencing African independence. As a cooperation of British government and her former colonies; the committee engaged in the complete decolonisation of the rest of British colonies. African member  states  helped by India,  mounted  pressure  on  the  British  government  to  grant independence to the rest  of their colonies in Africa.  The commonwealth condemned  the continued white dominance in Southern Africa, as member-states extended assistance to Africans in South Africa and South West Africa to defeat the Apartheid regime; and those in Southern Rhodesia against the UDI.

35. Harold MacMilkn's Wind of change speech (1960)

The speech made by the British premier in 1960 created political inspiration in British Colonial and Southern Africa. After his tour of all African states  under foreign influence, Macmilian concluded his African visit in Cape Town South Africa- during his address to the South African parliament,  Macmilian  stated  that,  "In  Africa  was  a  strong  wind  of  change  that  was irresistible." The result of this influential speech was the increase in the nationalistic struggles especially in South Africa, South West Africa (Namibia) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).

36. The formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) 1963

The formation of the Organisation of the African Unity promoted the decolonization process in Africa. Among the main aims of the OAU was the complete eradication of colonialism from the continent. The OAU therefore, established a liberation committee with headquarters  in Tanzania, through which moral, financial and  military  support  was  extended  to  Africans fighting against colonialism. The organisation also condemned the persistent foreign domination in Africa and called for sanctions against the Apartheid system, the Portuguese colonial regime and the unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) in Southern Rhodesia.

37. Effects of the Lisbon coup (1974)

The Lisbon coup of April 25, 1974 contributed to the decolonisation of Portuguese colonies. The coup brought to power a young socialist military government led by Antonio de Spinola, replacing another ineffective military government of Marcelo Caetano. De Spinola was more interested in developing Portugal and elevating the country from financial crisis, than keeping African colonies. Hence, upon assuming the Portuguese throne, De Spinola's regime immediately engaged in discussions with the PAIGC of Bissau, the MPLA of Angola and the FRELIMO of Mozambique. The result was the immediate independence of Guinea Bissau in 1974 and Angola and Mozambique in 1975.